Unit-II: BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL CONCEPTS AND PROCESS

1. Perception

Meaning and Process of Perception

Perception is the process of organizing, interpreting, and giving meaning to the raw sensory information we receive from the environment.

Process of Perception:

1. Sensory Input: Our sense organs (eyes, ears, etc.) detect a stimulus.
2. Attention (Selection): We select which stimuli to focus on (see next topic).
3. Organization: Our brain organizes the selected information into a meaningful pattern (this is where Gestalt theory comes in).
4. Interpretation: We assign meaning to the pattern based on our past experiences, values, and expectations.

Gestalt Theory of Perception

Gestalt is a German word meaning 'form', 'pattern', or 'whole'. The Gestalt psychologists (Max Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka) believed that we perceive the world in meaningful wholes, not just as a collection of parts.

The core idea is: "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts."

Laws of Perceptual Organization (Gestalt Laws):

• Law of Figure-Ground: We instinctively divide any perception into a 'figure' (what we focus on) and a 'ground' (the background).
• Law of Proximity: We tend to group objects that are near each other.
• Law of Similarity: We tend to group objects that are similar to each other (e.g., by color, shape).
• Law of Closure: Our minds tend to fill in the gaps to perceive a complete, whole object.
• Law of Continuity: We tend to perceive continuous, smooth lines or patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

2. Attention

Meaning of Attention

Attention is the selective focus of consciousness on a particular stimulus or object, while ignoring other stimuli.

It is like a mental "spotlight" that we shine on one part of our environment.

Condition (Factors) of Attention

What makes us pay attention to one thing and not another? These factors can be:

External (Objective) Factors:

These are characteristics of the stimulus itself.

• Intensity: A louder sound, brighter light, or stronger smell.
• Size: A larger object is more likely to get attention.
• Change/Novelty: We pay attention to new or changing stimuli. (e.g., a teacher suddenly speaking quietly).
• Movement: A moving object stands out against a static background.
• Repetition: A stimulus that is repeated (like a ringing phone) demands attention.

Internal (Subjective) Factors:

These are characteristics of the individual.

• Interest: We easily pay attention to things we are interested in.
• Motive/Need: A hungry person will notice food advertisements.
• Mental Set: Our "readiness" or expectation. (e.g., If you are expecting a call, you will hear the phone ring immediately).
• Habit: We are conditioned to pay attention to certain things (e.g., hearing our name).

Span, Distraction, and Fluctuation of Attention

• Span of Attention: Refers to the number of objects we can accurately perceive in a single, brief glance. For an average adult, this is about 4-5 objects.
• Distraction of Attention: This is when our attention is pulled away from our intended focus by an irrelevant stimulus (e.t., noise outside the classroom).
• Fluctuation of Attention: Our attention is not perfectly stable. It naturally shifts or "fluctuates" every few seconds, even when we are focused. We cannot focus on a single, unchanging object for long.

3. Emotion

Meaning of Emotion

The word 'Emotion' comes from the Latin 'emovere', meaning 'to stir up' or 'to agitate'.

Emotions are complex psychological states involving three components:

1. A Physiological Arousal: (e.g., increased heart rate, sweating).
2. An Expressive Behavior: (e.g., smiling, frowning, running).
3. A Conscious Experience: (e.g., the subjective feeling of 'happiness' or 'fear').

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory

• Theorists: William James and Carl Lange.
• Core Idea: "We feel afraid because we run."
• Sequence:
  1. Event (e.g., You see a bear).
  2. Physiological Arousal + Behavior (e.g., Your heart pounds, you run).
  3. Conscious Emotion (e.g., You interpret your pounding heart and running as "fear").
• In short: The physical response *causes* the emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory

• Theorists: Walter Cannon and Philip Bard.
• Core Idea: The theory criticized James-Lange, stating that many emotions have similar physiological responses (e.g., heart pounds when you're angry, afraid, *or* in love).
• Sequence:
  1. Event (e.g., You see a bear).
  2. The thalamus in the brain sends signals *simultaneously* to:
     • The cortex (creating the conscious emotion of "fear").
     • The body (creating the physiological arousal of a pounding heart).
• In short: The physical response and the conscious emotion happen at the same time.

Emotional Maturity

Emotional maturity is the ability to control and express one's emotions in an appropriate and constructive way, according to the social situation. It involves:

• Moving from external to internal control of emotions.
• Expressing emotions verbally rather than physically (e.g., saying "I'm angry" instead of hitting).
• Being able to delay gratification.
• Having empathy and understanding others' emotions.

Educational Implication of Emotion and Interest

(See also "Interest" below)

• Emotions affect learning: Positive emotions (like curiosity, joy) *enhance* learning and memory. Negative emotions (like fear, anxiety, boredom) *block* learning.
• Role of Teacher: The teacher's primary job is to create a positive emotional climate in the classroom—one that is supportive, safe, and free from fear or ridicule.
• Interest is key: Arouse students' interest and curiosity to foster positive emotions and attention.

4. Memory

Meaning and Factors of Memory

Memory is the mental process of encoding (getting information in), storing (keeping it), and retrieving (getting it out) information.

Factors of Memorization (How to Improve Memory):

• Attention: You cannot remember what you did not pay attention to.
• Interest: We remember things we are interested in.
• Meaningfulness: It's easier to remember meaningful information (e.g., a story) than nonsense syllables (e.g., "GEX").
• Organization: Grouping information (e.g., "chunking" a phone number) improves memory.
• Spaced Practice: Spreading out study sessions (e.g., 1 hour a day) is better than "cramming" all at once (massed practice).
• Overlearning: Continuing to practice even after you've "just learned" it makes the memory stronger.

Types of Memory

1. Sensory Memory: The briefest stage (1-3 seconds). It's a "snapshot" of sensory input (e.g., the image you see when you blink).
2. Short-Term Memory (STM) / Working Memory:
   • Capacity: Limited. "The magical number 7, plus or minus 2" items.
   • Duration: Brief, around 15-30 seconds unless rehearsed.
   • Function: It's the "workbench" of the mind where we actively process information.
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM):
   • Capacity: Virtually unlimited.
   • Duration: Relatively permanent.
   • Types: Includes procedural memory (how to do things, e.g., ride a bike) and declarative memory (facts, e.g., "Paris is the capital of France").

Methods of Memorization

• Rote Memorization: Simple repetition (e.g., chanting multiplication tables). It is not very effective for complex ideas.
• Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information to what you already know. This is the best way to move info to LTM.
• Mnemonics: Memory aids (e.g., acronyms like VIBGYOR for rainbow colors, or using mental imagery).

5. Forgetting

Meaning and Causes of Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve information that was previously stored in memory.

Causes of Forgetting:

1. Decay Theory: Memory traces ("engrams") fade over time if they are not used. (Applies mostly to STM).
2. Interference Theory: Other memories get in the way of what you are trying to recall.
   • Proactive Interference: Past learning interferes with new learning. (e.g., you write your old address on a new form).
   • Retroactive Interference: Recent learning interferes with old learning. (e.g., after learning Spanish, you forget some of your high school French).
3. Retrieval Failure: The memory is in LTM, but you can't access it. (e.g., the "tip-of-the-tongue" phenomenon).
4. Motivated Forgetting (Repression): Sigmund Freud's idea that we unconsciously push painful or traumatic memories out of our awareness.

Curve of Forgetting

Studied by Hermann Ebbinghaus (who used himself as a subject to memorize nonsense syllables).

The forgetting curve shows that:

• We forget very rapidly in the first few hours after learning.
• The rate of forgetting then slows down.
• Implication: Reviewing material soon after the lesson is crucial to prevent this rapid initial drop.

6. Interest

Meaning, Types, and Factors of Interest

Interest is a feeling of liking and attention towards an object, person, or activity. It is a powerful motivator.

Types of Interest:

• Innate Interest: Natural interests we are born with (e.g., in food, play).
• Acquired Interest: Interests we develop through experience and education (e.g., in history, chess).

Factors Affecting Interest:

Similar to factors of attention (Age, gender, culture, family, needs, and opportunities).

Relation between Attention and Interest

Attention and Interest are two sides of the same coin.

• Interest is latent attention: When you are interested in something, you have the *potential* to pay attention to it.
• Attention is interest in action: When you are actively paying attention, you are showing your interest.

You cannot force someone to pay attention for long if they have no interest. Therefore, the teacher's job is not to "demand attention" but to "create interest", which will then capture attention automatically.

7. Instincts

Meaning, Characteristics, and Types

An instinct is a complex, inborn, unlearned pattern of behavior that is universal to a species. (e.g., a bird building a nest, a spider spinning a web).

Characteristics:

• They are innate (not learned).
• They are universal (all members of the species have them).