Unit-III: LEARNING AND MOTIVATION

1. Learning - Meaning and Nature

Meaning of Learning

Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior (or behavioral potential) that results from experience or practice.

Let's break this down:

• "Relatively permanent": This excludes temporary changes due to fatigue, drugs, or illness.
• "Change in behavior": Learning is an internal process, but we *infer* it has happened by observing a change in a person's actions.
• "Experience or practice": This is the key. Learning is different from maturation (e.g., growing taller or a baby walking), which is a natural biological unfolding. Learning requires interaction with the environment.

Nature of Learning

• Learning is a Process: It is a continuous, lifelong process, not just a product.
• Learning is Purposeful: All learning is goal-oriented.
• Learning is an Adjustment: It helps the individual adapt to their environment.
• Learning is Active: The learner is not a passive sponge; they must actively engage.
• Learning is Transferable: What is learned in one situation can be applied to another.
• Learning is Universal: All living creatures (humans and animals) learn.

2. Theories of Learning

These theories explain *how* learning occurs.

Trial and Error Theory - E.L. Thorndike

• Also Known As: Connectionism, S-R Bond Theory.
• Experiment: Thorndike put a hungry cat in a "puzzle box." The cat had to pull a lever (the correct response) to escape and get food (the reward). The cat first tried many random behaviors (trial and error) until it accidentally hit the lever. With each trial, the cat's "error" behaviors decreased, and it became faster at pulling the lever.
• Core Idea: Learning is a process of forming a connection (or "bond") between a Stimulus (S) and a Response (R). This bond is strengthened by rewards.
• Thorndike's Laws of Learning:
  1. Law of Readiness: Learning is effective only when the learner is "ready" to learn (mentally and physically).
  2. Law of Exercise: "Practice makes perfect." The S-R bond is strengthened with use (Law of Use) and weakened with disuse (Law of Disuse).
  3. Law of Effect: This is the most important law. If a response is followed by a satisfying consequence (a reward), the S-R bond is strengthened. If followed by an annoying consequence (a punishment), it is weakened.
• Educational Implication: Emphasizes the importance of practice, drill, and using rewards/positive feedback.

Conditioning Theories

Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov

• Experiment: Pavlov (a physiologist) noticed dogs salivated when they saw the lab assistant who fed them. He set up an experiment:
  1. Before: Food (UCS) -> Salivation (UCR). Bell (NS) -> No Response.
  2. During: Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) -> Salivation (UCR). (Repeated many times).
  3. After: Bell (now CS) -> Salivation (now CR).
• Core Idea: Learning occurs by association. A neutral stimulus (Bell) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) when it is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (Food) that naturally causes a response.
• Educational Implication: Explains how students learn emotional responses. A positive, supportive teacher (paired with learning) can lead to a love of the subject. A harsh teacher (paired with learning) can lead to anxiety.

Operant Conditioning - B.F. Skinner

• Experiment: A rat in a "Skinner Box" learns that pressing a lever (the "operant" response) will result in a food pellet (the "reinforcer").
• Core Idea: Behavior is controlled by its consequences. Thorndike's "Law of Effect" is the key. The learner is active ("operates" on the environment).
• Key Concepts:
  • Reinforcement: Any consequence that strengthens (increases) a behavior.
    • Positive Reinforcement: Giving something good (e.g., praise, a star).
    • Negative Reinforcement: Removing something bad (e.g., stopping the scolding when a student starts working). This is NOT punishment.
  • Punishment: Any consequence that weakens (decreases) a behavior.
• Educational Implication: The basis for classroom management, token economies, and providing immediate feedback. Skinner advocated for positive reinforcement over punishment.

Gestalt Theory of Learning (Insightful Learning)

• Theorists: Wertheimer, Köhler, Koffka.
• Experiment: Köhler placed a chimpanzee (Sultan) in a cage with bananas outside, just out of reach. Sticks were inside the cage. Sultan first tried and failed (like trial-and-error), then suddenly paused, had a "flash of insight," and used a stick to rake in the bananas.
• Core Idea: Learning is not a blind S-R connection. It is a cognitive process of perceiving the problem as a "whole" and suddenly seeing the solution (the "Aha!" moment).
• Educational Implication: Emphasizes understanding, problem-solving, and presenting the topic as a whole, not just as isolated facts.

Piaget's Theory of Learning (Cognitive Constructivism)

• Theorist: Jean Piaget.
• Core Idea: Learning is an active process of construction, not passive absorption. The learner builds their own understanding of the world by interacting with it.
• Key Concepts:
  • Schema: A mental framework or concept we use to organize information.
  • Assimilation: Fitting new information into our existing schemas. (e.g., a child sees a cow and says "doggie").
  • Accommodation: Changing our existing schemas to fit new information. (e.g., the child creates a new "cow" schema).
  • Equilibration: The mental balance we strive for. Learning happens when disequilibrium (a mental mismatch) forces us to assimilate or accommodate.
• Educational Implication: "Learning by doing." Emphasizes discovery learning, hands-on projects, and tailoring lessons to the child's cognitive stage.

3. Transfer of Learning

Meaning of Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning is the effect that learning one task or in one situation has on the learning of another task or in a new situation.

Types of Transfer

1. Positive Transfer: Learning in one situation helps learning in another.
   • Example: Knowing how to ride a bicycle helps you learn to ride a motorcycle.
2. Negative Transfer: Learning in one situation hinders or interferes with learning in another.
   • Example: Driving a car in the US (left-side steering) can interfere with learning to drive in the UK (right-side steering).
3. Zero Transfer: Learning in one situation has no effect on learning in another.
   • Example: Knowing how to swim has no effect on learning to type.

Theories of Transfer

• Theory of Identical Elements (Thorndike): Transfer occurs only to the extent that there are identical elements (common facts, skills, or principles) between the old task and the new task. This is the most widely accepted theory.
• Theory of Mental Discipline (Old theory, now rejected): Believed the mind was a "muscle" that could be trained with "hard" subjects (like Latin or Math) to make it stronger, which would then help in all other areas.
• Theory of Generalization (Judd): Transfer occurs when a learner understands a general principle or rule, which they can then apply to new, specific situations.

4. Motivation

Meaning and Types of Motivation

The word "motivation" comes from the Latin 'movere', meaning 'to move'.

Motivation is an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior. It is the "why" behind what we do.

Types of Motivation:

Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

	Intrinsic Motivation	Extrinsic Motivation
Definition	The desire to perform a task for its own sake, out of interest, or for a sense of accomplishment.	The desire to perform a task to get an external reward (e.g., grades, money) or avoid a punishment.
Source of Reward	Internal (joy, satisfaction, curiosity).	External (praise, stars, fear of failure).
Example	Reading a book because you love the story.	Reading a book only to pass an exam.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow, a humanist psychologist, proposed that human motivation is based on a hierarchy of needs. We must satisfy the lower-level needs before we are motivated to pursue higher-level needs.

1. Physiological Needs (Base): Basic survival needs (e.g., air, food, water, sleep).
2. Safety/Security Needs: Need to feel safe, secure, and stable (e.g., shelter, financial security, health).
3. Love and Belongingness Needs: Need for social connection (e.g., friends, family, intimacy).
4. Esteem Needs: Need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and respect from others.
5. Self-Actualization (Peak): The motivation to fulfill one's full potential and become "everything one is capable of becoming."

Social Security Needs

This relates to Maslow's Safety Needs and Love/Belongingness Needs. In an educational context, it means a student needs to feel:

• Physically Safe: Free from bullying, harm, or a threatening environment.
• Emotionally Safe: Free from ridicule, humiliation, or extreme anxiety.
• Socially Secure: Feeling a sense of belonging, acceptance, and connection with peers and the teacher.

5. Role of Motivation in Learning

Motivation is the engine of learning. It is the single most important factor. Its roles are:

• It Arouses Interest: It gets the student engaged.
• It Directs Behavior: It focuses the student's energy on the learning goal.
• It Sustains Effort: It is what makes a student persist through difficult problems instead of giving up.
• It Enhances Performance: Motivated students pay closer attention, process information more deeply, and perform better.

A good teacher's primary job is to be a motivator—by arousing curiosity, showing the relevance of the material, using positive reinforcement, and creating a supportive, needs-fulfilling classroom.