Unit 1: Sources

1. Introduction

This unit lays the foundation for our entire study. History is not just a story; it's a reconstruction of the past based on evidence. Understanding the types, strengths, and weaknesses of this evidence (the "sources") is the most crucial skill for a history student. Ancient Indian history, in particular, must be pieced together from a wide variety of clues.

2. Sources of Ancient Indian History

The sources for ancient India are broadly divided into two main categories: Literary (written) and Archaeological (material remains).

1. Literary Sources

These are all written texts. They can be subdivided into indigenous (local) and foreign (from travelers).

A. Indigenous Literature (Religious)

• Vedic Literature: Includes the four Vedas (Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva), Brahmanas (commentaries on rituals), Aranyakas (forest books), and Upanishads (philosophy). They are our main source for the Vedic Period, detailing religion, society, and polity.
• Epics: The Ramayana and Mahabharata. While they are epic poems, they provide glimpses of the social and political life of the Later Vedic and Mahajanapada periods.
• Puranas: 18 major Puranas (like Vishnu Purana, Vayu Purana). They are crucial for royal genealogies (king lists) of dynasties like the Mauryas, Shungas, and Guptas, though they are filled with myths.
• Buddhist Texts: Written in Pali. The *Tripitakas* (three baskets) detail Buddhist philosophy. The *Jataka tales* describe the previous births of the Buddha, but their stories reveal aspects of contemporary social and economic life.
• Jain Texts: Written in Prakrit. The *Agamas* contain the teachings of Mahavira. Texts like the *Bhadrabahu Charita* provide details on early Jain leaders.

B. Indigenous Literature (Secular/Non-Religious)

• Dharmashastras: Law-books like the *Manusmriti*, which prescribe duties, laws, and social customs.
• Kautilya's Arthashastra: A comprehensive manual on statecraft, politics, and economic policy, believed to be from the Mauryan period. It's a vital source for administration.
• Biographies (Charitas): E.g., Ashvaghosha's *Buddhacharita* (life of Buddha).
• Sangam Literature: Early Tamil poems from South India, providing invaluable information on the society, economy, and politics of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.

C. Foreign Accounts

• Greek/Roman: Accounts from Alexander's historians. Most importantly, Megasthenes' *Indica*, which describes Mauryan India (especially Pataliputra), though it only survives in fragments.
• Chinese: Accounts of Buddhist pilgrims like Fa-Hien (Faxian) and Hiuen-Tsang (Xuanzang), who came later but described the holy sites and conditions of their time.

2. Archaeological Sources

These are material remains from the past. Their great advantage is that they are often more objective and scientific than literary texts.

• Inscriptions (Epigraphy): Writings carved on stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, or temple walls. These are a primary, reliable source.
  • Example: The Edicts of Ashoka are the most famous. They are official proclamations from the king himself, giving us direct insight into his policy of Dhamma.
  • Example: The *Hathigumpha Inscription* of King Kharavela of Kalinga.
• Coins (Numismatics): Coins reveal trade routes, economic conditions, names of kings, and dates.
  • Example: Punch-marked coins are the earliest. Indo-Greek coins were the first to carry portraits and names of kings. Gupta coins show kings playing the veena or performing sacrifices, revealing cultural details.
• Monuments & Artifacts:
  • Architecture: Stupas (like at Sanchi), caves (like Bhimbetka), and early temple remains tell us about religious and artistic practices.
  • Pottery: Different cultures are identified by their pottery. E.g., Painted Grey Ware (PGW) with the Later Vedic period, and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) with the Mauryan period.
  • Artifacts: Tools (stone, copper, iron), seals (like the Harappan seals), and terracotta figurines (like the Mother Goddess) reveal technology, trade, and daily life.

3. Notions of History in Early India

A common misconception is that ancient Indians had "no sense of history" in the modern, Western way (i.e., a linear, chronological, objective record of events).

• The "Itihasa-Purana" Tradition: Early India *did* have a strong sense of the past, but it was different. It was called Itihasa (lit. "thus it was") and Purana ("of old times").
• Purpose: This tradition did not just record events. Its main purpose was to teach Dharma (moral and social duty) using examples from the past. History was a vehicle for ethics.
• Nature:
  • Cyclical Time: Unlike the Western linear concept, time was seen as cyclical (moving in *Yugas* or ages).
  • Myth & Fact: There was no sharp distinction between myth, legend, and historical fact. They were all part of a continuous tradition.
  • Focus on Genealogies: The *Vamshanucharita* (genealogies of kings) section of the Puranas was the core historical element.
• Later Examples: A more "modern" sense of history emerged much later, with texts like Kalhana's *Rajatarangini* (12th Century CE), a history of the kings of Kashmir, which is noted for its critical approach.

4. Historicity of Puranas

This topic explores the question: "How much actual history is in the Puranas?"

Definition: The Puranas are a collection of texts that typically cover five subjects (*Pancha-lakshana*):

1. Sarga (Primary creation of the universe)
2. Pratisarga (Secondary creation, recreation after dissolution)
3. Vamsha (Genealogy of gods and sages)
4. Manvantara (The ages of the Manus)
5. Vamshanucharita (Genealogies of royal dynasties)

• Historical Value: The *Vamshanucharita* section is their main value. They provide lists of kings for major dynasties like the Shishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Shungas, Kanvas, and Satavahanas.
• The Problem of Historicity:
  1. Late Composition: Though they talk about ancient times, they were written down much later (mostly in the Gupta period).
  2. Mythological Elements: The reigns of kings are exaggerated (e.g., lasting thousands of years) and mixed with myths.
  3. Prophetic Style: For dynasties after the "Mahabharata war" (like the Mauryas), the Puranas are written as a "prophecy" (e.g., "A king named Chandragupta *will* rule..."). This was a literary device.
  4. Sectarian Bias: Different Puranas (e.g., Vishnu Purana vs. Vayu Purana) sometimes give conflicting details to favor their own deity.
• How Historians Use Them: The Puranas are not taken as literal fact. Historians (like F.E. Pargiter) carefully cross-reference the king lists and events from the Puranas with evidence from archaeology (inscriptions) and other texts (Buddhist/Jain) to find a "kernel of truth." For example, the Puranas' mention of Chandragupta Maurya is confirmed by Greek and Jain sources.

5. Exam Corner