Unit 2: A Survey of Prehistoric India

1. Introduction to Prehistory

Prehistory refers to the period of human history before the invention of writing. Since there are no literary sources, our entire understanding is based on archaeological evidence: stone tools, fossils, cave paintings, and buried remains.

This unit surveys the "Stone Age" and "Copper-Stone Age," tracking the evolution of early humans from nomadic hunter-gatherers to settled farmers.

2. Palaeolithic Culture (Old Stone Age)

(Approx. 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE)

Key Features:

• Lifestyle: Humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers. They lived in small groups, hunted large animals, and gathered plants, fruits, and nuts. They often lived in rock shelters (caves).
• Tools: The tools were crude, heavy, and unpolished, made from quartzite. They are often called "core tools" (made from the main block of stone) or "flake tools" (made from the flakes chipped off).
  • Lower Palaeolithic: Hand-axes, cleavers, and choppers.
  • Middle Palaeolithic: Flake tools like scrapers, borers, and points.
  • Upper Palaeolithic: Emergence of blades and burins (for engraving).
• Art: The very first examples of art appear in the form of cave paintings, such as those at Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh).
• Key Sites: Soan Valley (Pakistan), Narmada Valley (Hathnora, where a human skull fragment was found), Bhimbetka (MP).

3. Mesolithic Culture (Middle Stone Age)

(Approx. 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE)

This was a transitional phase between the Palaeolithic and the Neolithic. The climate became warmer and drier at the end of the Ice Age, leading to changes in flora and fauna.

Key Features:

• Lifestyle: Still primarily hunting and gathering, but they also began fishing and early animal domestication.
• Tools: The defining feature of this age is the MICROLITH. These were tiny, sharp, geometric stone tools (like triangles, crescents, and blades) that were used as barbs on arrows and spears.
• Early Domestication: Sites like Adamgarh (MP) and Bagor (Rajasthan) show the earliest evidence of the domestication of animals (like sheep and goats).
• Art: The cave paintings at Bhimbetka flourished, showing scenes of hunting, dancing, and social life.
• Key Sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (MP), Bhimbetka (MP).

4. Neolithic Culture (New Stone Age)

(Approx. 6,000 BCE – 4,000 BCE)

This period saw a fundamental change in human lifestyle, often called the "Neolithic Revolution."

The Neolithic Revolution: This was the world-changing shift from a food-gathering (hunting) economy to a food-producing (farming) economy.

Key Features:

• Agriculture: Humans began cultivating crops like wheat, barley, and later rice. This is the most important development.
• Domestication: Widespread domestication of animals (cattle, sheep, goats) for food, milk, and labour.
• Sedentary Life: Agriculture forced people to settle in one place. This led to the first villages.
• Tools: The tools were now polished, well-finished, and ground, including celts (axes), adzes, and sickles.
• Pottery: The invention of pottery was essential for storing surplus grain and water.
• Burials: People began burying their dead in a systematic way, often with grave goods.
• Key Sites:
  • Mehrgarh (Pakistan): The earliest known agricultural settlement in South Asia. Shows a continuous evolution from 7000 BCE.
  • Burzahom (Kashmir): Famous for its pit-dwellings (people lived in pits dug into the ground) and for burials where pets (like dogs) were buried with their owners.
  • Koldihwa (UP): One of the earliest sites showing evidence of rice cultivation.

5. Chalcolithic Culture (Copper-Stone Age)

(Approx. 4,000 BCE – 1,500 BCE)

This period is defined by the first use of metal. Chalco = Copper, Lithic = Stone. People used copper tools alongside their advanced stone tools.

Key Features:

• Technology: This was a key technological leap. However, copper was scarce and expensive, so stone tools remained dominant.
• Lifestyle: These were mostly rural, agricultural communities. They cultivated crops, herded animals, and lived in mud-brick houses.
• Note: Most Chalcolithic cultures were rural. The Harappan/Indus Valley Civilisation (which we study in Unit 3) was a more advanced urban culture (using bronze) that overlapped with this period.
• Pottery: These cultures are famous for their distinctive painted pottery, such as Black-and-Red Ware and Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP).
• Key Cultures (Sites):
  • Ahar-Banas Culture (Rajasthan): Known for copper smelting.
  • Malwa Culture (MP): Known for its distinctive pottery.
  • Jorwe Culture (Maharashtra): A major culture with sites like Daimabad.

6. Exam Corner: Comparison Table

This table is perfect for revision and answering comparison questions.

Period	Tools	Lifestyle	Key Developments	Key Sites
Palaeolithic	Crude, unpolished core tools (hand-axe, cleaver)	Nomadic hunter-gatherer	Fire, basic tools, cave art	Soan Valley, Bhimbetka
Mesolithic	Microliths (tiny, sharp blades)	Hunter-gatherer, fisher	Early animal domestication, fishing	Bagor, Adamgarh
Neolithic	Polished, ground stone tools (celts, sickles)	Sedentary farmer (villages)	Agriculture, Pottery, Villages	Mehrgarh, Burzahom
Chalcolithic	Copper + Stone tools	Rural farmer	First use of metal (smelting)	Jorwe, Ahar, Malwa