Unit 3: Indus Valley Civilisation

1. Introduction

The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Harappan Civilisation (after Harappa, the first site excavated), was a Bronze Age civilisation located in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It was one of the world's three earliest urban civilisations, along with Mesopotamia and Egypt.

• Time Period (Mature Phase): Approx. 2600 BCE – 1900 BCE.
• Key Sites: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro (the largest city), Dholavira, Lothal (a port city), Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi.
• Unique Feature: It was the most geographically widespread ancient civilisation.

2. Town Planning

The most remarkable feature of the IVC was its sophisticated urban planning, which was far superior to any other contemporary civilisation.

Key Features:

• Grid-Iron Pattern: Cities were laid out on a systematic grid pattern. Main streets ran north-south and east-west, intersecting at perfect right angles.
• Two-Part Division: Most cities were divided into two sections:
  1. The Citadel (Western Mound): A raised, fortified area built on a mud-brick platform. It contained important public buildings like the Great Bath (at Mohenjo-Daro), the Granaries, and assembly halls. It was likely occupied by the ruling class.
  2. The Lower Town (Eastern Mound): The larger residential area where the common people lived and worked.
• Advanced Drainage System: This is the most impressive feature. Every house had a connection to the main street drains. These drains were covered with bricks or stone slabs and had manholes for cleaning. This shows a remarkable concern for public health and sanitation.
• Building Materials: They used standardised, baked bricks in a uniform ratio (1:2:4) for almost all construction. This uniformity across hundreds of kilometers is astounding.
• Houses: Houses were built around a central courtyard and often had private wells and bathrooms.

3. Social and Economic Life

i) Social Life

• Stratified Society: The planning (Citadel vs. Lower Town) suggests a social hierarchy, with a ruling class (priests or merchants) and a class of common people, artisans, and laborers.
• Food: They cultivated wheat, barley, pulses, and were the first in the world to grow cotton. They also ate meat, fish, and dairy products.
• Dress & Ornaments: Figurines show that both men and women wore ornaments. They used cotton and wool for clothing. Necklaces, armlets, and bangles made of beads, shell, and semi-precious stones were common.
• Amusements: People played dice (dice have been found), and numerous terracotta toys (like toy carts, animals, and whistles) suggest children played with them.

ii) Economic Life

• Agriculture: This was the backbone of the economy. They used wooden ploughs (terracotta models found at Banawali) and likely relied on river irrigation.
• Trade and Commerce: The IVC had a vast and flourishing trade network.
  • Internal Trade: They traded with regions in Rajasthan (for copper), Karnataka (for gold), and Gujarat (for semi-precious stones).
  • External Trade: They had extensive trade with Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Mesopotamian texts refer to a trading partner called "Meluhha," which is believed to be the IVC.
• Seals and Script: Trade was likely regulated using steatite seals. These are the most unique IVC artifact, often depicting animals (like the "unicorn" bull) and a line of script. The Harappan script is undeciphered, which is the biggest mystery of the civilisation.
• Crafts: They were master craftsmen.
  • Pottery: Distinctive glossy Red-and-Black ware.
  • Bead-making: Factories found at Chanhudaro and Lothal.
  • Metal-working: They knew bronze-casting (using the lost-wax technique), famously seen in the "Dancing Girl" statue from Mohenjo-Daro.

4. Religious Practices

Since the script is undeciphered, we can only guess their beliefs from artifacts.

• Mother Goddess: Numerous terracotta figurines of a female deity have been found. This suggests a widespread fertility cult and the worship of a Mother Goddess.
• "Proto-Shiva" (Pashupati Seal): A famous seal from Mohenjo-Daro shows a three-faced male deity, seated in a yogic posture, crowned with horns, and surrounded by four animals (elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo). This is often identified as an early form of the Hindu god Shiva (as Pashupati, Lord of Beasts).
• Nature Worship: They revered animals (like the Humped Bull) and trees (like the Pipal tree), which are common motifs on seals.
• Fire Altars: Structures identified as fire altars have been found at Kalibangan and Lothal, suggesting ritual sacrifice.
• Burials: They practiced burial, typically laying the dead north-south, often with grave goods (pottery, ornaments).

5. Causes of Decline

The IVC began to decline around 1900 BCE, leading to the abandonment of cities and a return to a more rural lifestyle. There was no single cause, but rather a combination of factors.

Theory	Explanation	Evidence / Proponent
Climate Change / Ecological	Increased aridity (drying) of the region and the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra river (often identified with the mythical Saraswati river) made agriculture unsustainable.	This is the most widely accepted theory today, supported by palaeo-climatic studies.
Floods or Tectonic Shifts	Repeated, catastrophic floods (evidence at Mohenjo-Daro) or earthquakes may have changed river courses, disrupting cities and trade.	Proposed by hydrologists like Raikes.
Aryan Invasion	A theory that invading "Aryan" tribes destroyed the cities.	Proposed by Mortimer Wheeler, based on unburied skeletons at Mohenjo-Daro and references to "forts" in the Rig Veda. This theory is now largely discredited due to a lack of supporting archaeological evidence.
Internal Decay	A gradual breakdown of the complex trade network and administrative machinery.	Likely a contributing factor.

6. Exam Corner