Unit 4: Vedic Culture

1. Introduction to Vedic Culture

The Vedic Culture (approx. 1500 BCE – 600 BCE) is the period when the Vedas, the foundational sacred texts of Hinduism, were composed. This culture is associated with the Indo-Aryans, a pastoralist people who settled in the northern Indian subcontinent.

This period is divided into two distinct phases, which show significant changes in society, politics, and religion.

• Rig Vedic Period (1500–1000 BCE): The time when the Rig Veda was composed. Centered on the Sapta-Sindhu (land of seven rivers) region in the Punjab.
• Later Vedic Period (1000–600 BCE): The time when the other Vedas (Sama, Yajur, Atharva) and their accompanying texts were composed. The culture's center shifted eastward to the Ganga-Yamuna doab. This period saw the first use of iron.

2. Rig Vedic Period (Early Vedic Period)

(Approx. 1500 BCE – 1000 BCE)

Our knowledge of this period comes almost exclusively from the Rig Veda, the oldest of the Vedas.

i) Rig Vedic Polity

• Tribal System: The main political unit was the tribe, called Jana (e.g., Bharatas, Purus).
• The King (Rajan): The king was a tribal chieftain, not an absolute ruler. His position was often not hereditary. His main duty was to protect the tribe and its cattle (*Gopati* - Lord of Cattle).
• Tribal Assemblies: The king's power was checked by two important assemblies:
  • Sabha: A council of elder and important members of the tribe.
  • Samiti: A general assembly of the entire tribe. Women were allowed to attend both.

ii) Rig Vedic Economy

• Pastoralist: The economy was primarily pastoral and semi-nomadic. Cattle were the main source of wealth (Gomat = wealthy man). Wars (*Gavishti*) were often fought for cattle.
• Secondary Agriculture: Agriculture was known but was a secondary occupation. They primarily grew barley (Yava).
• No Private Land: There was no concept of private land ownership. Land was held in common by the tribe.

iii) Rig Vedic Society

• Kinship-Based: The society was organized based on kinship. The family (*Kula*) was the basic unit, headed by the *Kulapati*.
• Status of Women: Women were highly respected. They could attend assemblies, participate in rituals, and even compose hymns (e.g., Lopamudra, Ghosha, Apala). There was no child marriage, and widow remarriage was permitted.
• Varna System: The Varna (color/class) system was flexible and based on occupation (Karma), not birth (Janma). The Rig Veda (in a late hymn) mentions the four Varnas (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) but it was not a rigid hierarchy.

iv) Rig Vedic Religion

• Nature Worship: They worshipped natural forces, personifying them as gods.
• Key Gods:
  • Indra: Most important god. God of war, storm, and rain (also called *Purandara* - breaker of forts).
  • Agni: Second most important. God of fire, seen as the intermediary between gods and humans.
  • Varuna: Upholder of the cosmic order (Rita).
  • Surya (Sun), Usha (Dawn).
• Rituals: Worship was simple. They performed sacrifices (Yajnas) to gain Praja (children) and Pashu (cattle). There were no temples and no idol worship.

3. Later Vedic Period

(Approx. 1000 BCE – 600 BCE)

This period saw profound changes, driven by the expansion into the fertile Gangetic plains and the use of iron technology.

i) Later Vedic Polity

• Rise of Kingdoms: The tribal *Janas* consolidated into territorial kingdoms called Janapadas (e.g., Kuru, Panchala).
• King's Power Increases: The king's power grew immensely. The position became hereditary. He was no longer just a tribal chief but the ruler of a territory.
• Elaborate Rituals: The king performed complex royal sacrifices to legitimize his power, such as the Rajasuya (consecration), Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), and Vajapeya.
• Decline of Assemblies: The Sabha and Samiti lost their importance, and women were no longer allowed to attend.

ii) Later Vedic Economy

• Agriculture becomes Primary: With the use of iron ploughs, people cleared the dense forests of the Ganga valley. Agriculture became the main occupation.
• Crops: They cultivated rice (Vrihi), wheat, barley, and cotton.
• Private Land: The concept of private ownership of land began to emerge.
• Crafts: New crafts like iron-smithing, pottery (Painted Grey Ware - PGW), and weaving emerged. Guilds (*Shreni*) also began to form.

iii) Later Vedic Society

• Rigid Varna System: The Varna system became rigid, hierarchical, and based on birth (Janma). The four Varnas had clearly defined roles, with Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) at the top.
• Decline in Status of Women: The status of women declined significantly. They were barred from assemblies, lost their right to the Upanayana (initiation) ceremony, and child marriage began to appear.
• Concept of Gotra: The system of *Gotra* (lineage) emerged, and marriage within the same Gotra was forbidden.

iv) Later Vedic Religion

• Complex Rituals: Religion became dominated by complex, expensive, and lengthy rituals and sacrifices, which could only be performed by the Brahmin priests. The simple worship of the Rig Vedic age was lost.
• New Gods: The old gods (Indra, Agni) lost their importance. New gods rose to prominence:
  • Prajapati: The Creator (became the supreme god).
  • Vishnu: The Preserver.
  • Rudra: An early form of Shiva.
• Reaction (Upanishads): Towards the end of this period, a philosophical reaction against these empty rituals began. This is seen in the Upanishads, which emphasized knowledge (Jnana), the self (Atman), and the ultimate reality (Brahman). This philosophical ferment paved the way for Buddhism and Jainism.

4. Exam Corner: Key Differences