Unit 1: Reconstructing Ancient Indian History

1. Sources: Archaeology & Literary

Reconstructing ancient Indian history is like solving a puzzle with two types of pieces: Literary (written texts) and Archaeological (material remains).

i) Archaeological Sources

These are physical, tangible remains from the past. They are generally considered more objective and scientific than literary sources.

• Inscriptions (Epigraphy): Writings carved on stone pillars, rocks, temple walls, and copper plates.
  • Example: The Ashokan Edicts are the most famous. They are official proclamations from Emperor Ashoka himself, giving us direct insight into his policy of Dhamma.
  • Example: The Hathigumpha Inscription of King Kharavela.
• Coins (Numismatics): Coins reveal names of kings, dates, trade routes, economic conditions, and even religious symbols.
  • Example: Indo-Greek coins were the first to carry portraits and names of kings. Gupta coins show kings playing the veena, indicating their cultural interests.
• Monuments & Artifacts:
  • Architecture: Stupas (like Sanchi), caves (like Bhimbetka), and early temple ruins tell us about religious practices and artistic styles.
  • Pottery: A key tool for dating. Different cultures are identified by their pottery, e.g., Painted Grey Ware (PGW) for the Later Vedic period, and Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) for the Mauryan period.
  • Artifacts: Tools, seals (like Harappan seals), and terracotta figurines reveal technology, trade, and daily life.

ii) Literary Sources

These are all written texts, which can be subdivided into indigenous (local) and foreign (traveler accounts).

A. Indigenous Literature (Religious)

• Vedic Literature: The four Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. They are our main source for the Vedic Period.
• Epics: The Ramayana and Mahabharata. While they are poems, they provide glimpses of contemporary society and politics.
• Puranas: 18 major Puranas. Their Vamshanucharita (genealogies) section is crucial for the king lists of dynasties like the Mauryas and Guptas, though they are mixed with myths.
• Buddhist Texts: Written in Pali. The *Tripitakas* and *Jataka tales* (which reveal social conditions of the time).
• Jain Texts: Written in Prakrit. The *Agamas* contain Jain teachings.

B. Indigenous Literature (Secular/Non-Religious)

• Kautilya's Arthashastra: A detailed manual on statecraft, politics, and economics, providing a blueprint for the Mauryan administration.
• Sangam Literature: Early Tamil poems from South India, invaluable for the history of the Chera, Chola, and Pandya kingdoms.

C. Foreign Accounts

• Greek/Roman: Megasthenes' *Indica*, which describes the Mauryan capital Pataliputra, though it only survives in fragments.
• Chinese: Accounts of Buddhist pilgrims like Fa-Hien (Faxian) and Hiuen-Tsang (Xuanzang), who described the places they visited.

2. Prehistoric Cultures of India

Prehistory is the period before the invention of writing. Our knowledge is based purely on archaeological evidence (mainly stone tools).

i) Palaeolithic Culture (Old Stone Age)

• Time: Approx. 500,000 BCE – 10,000 BCE.
• Lifestyle: Humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers.
• Tools: Crude, heavy, and unpolished "core tools" made from quartzite. Examples: hand-axes, cleavers, and choppers.
• Key Sites: Soan Valley (Pakistan), Narmada Valley, Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) for its early cave paintings.

ii) Neolithic Culture (New Stone Age)

• Time: Approx. 6,000 BCE – 4,000 BCE.
• Key Feature: This period saw the "Neolithic Revolution" — the shift from food-gathering to food-producing (agriculture).
• Lifestyle: Agriculture led to a sedentary life and the formation of the first villages.
• Tools: Polished, ground stone tools, such as celts (axes), adzes, and sickles.
• Inventions: The invention of pottery (for storing grain and water) and the wheel.
• Key Sites: Mehrgarh (Pakistan, the earliest agricultural settlement), Burzahom (Kashmir, famous for pit-dwellings), Koldihwa (evidence of rice).

iii) Mesolithic Culture (Middle Stone Age)

• Time: Approx. 10,000 BCE – 6,000 BCE.
• Lifestyle: This was a transitional phase. People were still hunter-gatherers but also began fishing and early animal domestication.
• Tools: The defining feature is the MICROLITH. These were tiny, sharp, geometric stone tools (like blades, crescents) that were fixed to wood or bone to make arrows and spears.
• Key Sites: Bagor (Rajasthan), Adamgarh (MP) – both show early evidence of animal domestication.

iv) Chalcolithic Culture (Copper-Stone Age)

• Time: Approx. 4,000 BCE – 1,500 BCE.
• Key Feature: This period is defined by the first use of metal, specifically copper, alongside advanced stone tools.
• Lifestyle: These were mostly rural, agricultural communities living in mud-brick houses.
• Culture: They are known for their distinctive painted pottery, such as Black-and-Red Ware and Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP).
• Key Cultures: Jorwe culture (Maharashtra), Ahar-Banas culture (Rajasthan).

3. Exam Corner