Unit 4: Post Vedic Political Evolution
1. Political Condition in the 6th Century BCE
The 6th Century BCE was a major turning point, marking the beginning of India's historical period. It is often called the era of "Second Urbanisation" (the first being the IVC), as the agricultural surplus from the Ganga valley led to the re-emergence of cities and trade.
The 16 Mahajanapadas
- This period saw the end of the old *Janapadas* (tribal kingdoms) and the rise of 16 large territorial states, or Mahajanapadas.
- Source: This famous list of 16 kingdoms is provided in the Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya.
- Two Types of States:
- Monarchies: Ruled by powerful kings. The most important were Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti.
- Republics (Ganas/Sanghas): Ruled not by a single king but by an assembly of nobles or clan chiefs. The most famous were the Vajji (of the Licchavis, with their capital at Vaishali) and the Mallas.
- This period was characterized by intense political struggle as these 16 states fought each other for supremacy.
2. Rise of Magadha
Out of the 16 Mahajanapadas, the kingdom of Magadha (in modern-day Bihar) eventually emerged as the most powerful, absorbing all its rivals and laying the foundation for India's first great empire.
Exam Question: "Why did Magadha rise to supremacy?"
This was due to a unique combination of geographic, economic, political, and military factors.
- 1. Economic Strength:
- Rich Iron Deposits: Magadha had easy access to the rich iron ore deposits of Chota Nagpur. This allowed them to make stronger weapons and better agricultural tools (like iron ploughs).
- Fertile Soil: Located in the heart of the fertile Ganga valley, it produced a massive agricultural surplus, which fed the army and filled the treasury.
- 2. Geographic Advantage:
- Strategic Capitals: Its first capital, Rajgir (or Girivraja), was surrounded by five hills, making it a natural, impregnable fort. Its second capital, Pataliputra (modern Patna), was a "water fort" (Jaladurga) located at the confluence of four rivers (Ganga, Son, Gandak, Ghaghra), allowing it to control all river-based trade and communication.
- 3. Military Power:
- First Use of Elephants: Magadha was the first kingdom to use war elephants on a large scale, which gave it a terrifying advantage against armies that relied only on horses and chariots.
- 4. Ambitious Rulers (Political Factor):
- Haryanka Dynasty: Bimbisara (used matrimonial alliances) and his son Ajatashatru (waged aggressive wars to conquer Kosala and the Vajji republic).
- Nanda Dynasty: Founded by Mahapadma Nanda, often called the "first empire builder of India." He defeated all remaining Kshatriya kingdoms. The last Nanda ruler, Dhana Nanda, was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya.
3. Foreign Invasions
While Magadha was rising in the east, the northwest of India (Punjab region) was politically fragmented and wealthy, making it an easy target for invasion.
i) Persian Invasion and Darius I
- Invasion: Around 518 BCE, the Persian Achaemenid Emperor, Darius I, conquered parts of the northwest, including Sindh and western Punjab.
- Effects of Persian Contact:
- It became the 20th Satrapy (province) of the Persian Empire and paid a huge annual tribute in gold.
- It opened up trade and cultural contact between India and Persia.
- The Kharoshthi script, an Aramaic-derived script used in northwest India for centuries (and in Ashokan edicts), was introduced by the Persians.
ii) Greek Invasion: Alexander's Invasion and its effects
- Invasion (327-325 BCE): After conquering the Persian Empire, Alexander the Great of Macedon (Greece) marched into India.
- Key Events:
- The ruler of Taxila, Ambhi (Omphis), surrendered without a fight.
- Battle of Hydaspes (326 BCE): Alexander fought his most famous battle against King Porus (Paurava) on the banks of the river Jhelum (Greek: *Hydaspes*). Porus fought bravely but was defeated. Alexander, impressed by his courage, restored his kingdom.
- Mutiny on the Beas: Alexander's army, exhausted and intimidated by reports of the massive Nanda army further east, mutinied at the river Beas (Greek: *Hyphasis*). This forced Alexander to turn back.
Effects of Alexander's Invasion:
- Political Unification: By destroying the small, warring tribal states in the northwest, Alexander's invasion paved the way for Chandragupta Maurya to easily conquer the region and build his empire.
- Direct Indo-Greek Contact: It opened the first direct land and sea routes between India and Europe, leading to increased trade and cultural exchange.
- Historical Dating: It gave Indian history its first firm "anchor date". The date of the invasion (326 BCE) is confirmed in Greek records, allowing historians to date other events (like the accession of Chandragupta) relative to it.
- Cultural Influence: It led to the later development of the Gandhara School of Art, a unique blend of Greek realism and Indian Buddhist themes.
4. Exam Corner
Short Note: "The 16 Mahajanapadas"
- Mention the source (Anguttara Nikaya) and the time (6th C BCE, Second Urbanisation).
- Explain the two types: Monarchies (Magadha, Kosala, etc.) and Republics (Vajji, Malla).
- State that this was a period of intense political struggle for supremacy.
Short Note: "Effects of Alexander's Invasion"
- Must mention: 1. Paved way for Mauryan unification. 2. Opened direct Indo-Greek contact (trade). 3. Provided the first fixed date (326 BCE) for Indian history. 4. Influenced Gandhara art.