Unit 2: Ancient India

1. Ecology and Environment: Religion and Society

In ancient India, the environment was not seen as a separate entity to be "used" by humans. Instead, human society, religion, and the natural world were deeply interwoven.

Religion and Ecology

Ancient Indian religions incorporated nature as a central part of their worldview and worship.

• Vedic Period: The early Vedic religion was a form of nature worship. The primary deities were personifications of natural forces:
  • Indra (God of Rain and Thunder)
  • Surya (The Sun God)
  • Agni (The Fire God)
  • Prithvi (The Earth Goddess)
  • Vayu (The Wind God)
  The Yajnas (fire sacrifices) were rituals meant to appease these forces and maintain cosmic order (Rta).
• Upanishadic Period (later Hinduism): The concept of Brahman (the ultimate, all-pervading reality) meant that the divine was present in all things, including every plant, animal, and river. This led to the veneration of:
  • Sacred Groves: Forests or patches of trees left untouched out of respect for a local deity. These acted as important biodiversity reserves.
  • Sacred Rivers: The Ganga, Yamuna, etc., were worshipped as goddesses, and a dip in them was considered purifying.
  • Sacred Animals: Certain animals were associated with deities (e.t., the cow, the monkey - Hanuman, the elephant - Ganesha), which gave them social and religious protection.
• Buddhism and Jainism: These religions introduced a powerful new environmental ethic:
  • Ahimsa (Non-violence): Both faiths preach non-violence towards *all* living beings, not just humans. This is a core conservationist principle.
  • Minimalism: They advocate for a simple life with minimal possessions and consumption, reducing one's impact on the environment.
  • Buddhist and Jain monasteries were often located in quiet natural settings, promoting a life in harmony with nature.

Society and Environment

• State Control (e.g., Mauryan Empire): The state understood the environment as a key resource. Kautilya's Arthashastra (a treatise on statecraft) has detailed sections on:
  • Forest Management: Classifying forests, appointing a "Superintendent of Forests," and listing punishments for cutting trees.
  • Water Management: Rules for building and maintaining reservoirs, dams, and irrigation canals.
  • Animal Protection: Designating protected areas (Abhayaranyas) for animals and regulating hunting.
• Livelihoods: Society was directly dependent on environmental cycles, especially the monsoon rains, which dictated the entire agricultural economy.

2. Animal domestication

Animal Domestication is the long-term process by which a population of animals is tamed and bred by humans to have specific traits that are useful (e.g., for food, materials, or labor).

This process was a key part of the Neolithic Revolution (the shift to farming) in ancient India.

Key Domesticated Animals in Ancient India

Environmental and Social Impact

• Stable Food Supply: Reduced reliance on unpredictable hunting.
• Changed Landscapes: Large herds of cattle required grazing lands (pastures), which could lead to clearing of forests.
• Fuel Source: Dried cattle dung became a primary cooking fuel, saving wood.
• Agricultural Revolution: The use of bullocks for ploughing was a technological leap that allowed for the farming of much larger areas.

3. Forest and Wildlife

Ancient India was a land of vast, dense forests, which played a dual role in the social imagination: they were both a vital resource and a place of wilderness and danger.

The Forest as a Resource

• Economic Resource: Forests provided a wealth of essential goods:
  • Timber: For building houses, carts, ships, and palaces (e.g., the Mauryan capital at Pataliputra was a "wooden city").
  • Fuel: Firewood and charcoal were the primary energy sources.
  • Food: Fruits, nuts, honey, roots, and hunted game.
  • Medicines: Home to countless medicinal plants used in Ayurveda.
  • Other Products: Resins, gums, fibers, and animal products (ivory, skins).
• Cultural/Spiritual Resource:
  • Ashramas: Forests were seen as the ideal place for spiritual retreat and learning. The ashramas of sages (rishis) were located in forests.
  • Aranyakas ("Forest Books"): A genre of Vedic texts was composed in the forest, dealing with mystical and philosophical topics.

Wildlife

Ancient texts describe an abundance of wildlife, including lions, tigers, rhinos, and elephants, in areas where they are no longer found today (e.g., lions in the Gangetic plains).

• Hunting (Shikar): Hunting was a major activity.
  • For Subsistence: By forest-dwellers and villagers.
  • As Royal Sport: For the nobility, hunting was a sign of power, a way to demonstrate courage, and training for warfare.
• Conflict and Co-existence: As agriculture expanded, human-wildlife conflict over crops and territory became more common.

4. Expansion of Agriculture

The expansion of settled agriculture was one of the most significant environmental transformations in ancient India. It involved the large-scale conversion of forests and grasslands into farmland.

The Second Urbanization (c. 600 BCE)

While the Indus Valley was the first urbanization, the "Second Urbanization" saw the rise of cities and kingdoms (Mahajanapadas) in the Gangetic plains. This was made possible by a new agricultural revolution.

Key Drivers of Agricultural Expansion

1. Iron Technology: The widespread use of the iron ploughshare (around 1000-800 BCE) was a game-changer. Iron tools (axes, ploughs) were hard enough to clear the dense, difficult forests of the Gangetic valley and break the hard soil.
2. Draught Animals: The use of domesticated bullocks (Topic 2) to pull the heavy ploughs provided the necessary "engine power."
3. Crop Development: The development of paddy rice cultivation (transplantation of rice seedlings into flooded fields) in the wet eastern plains led to huge food surpluses. In the west (Punjab), wheat and barley remained dominant.
4. Water Management:
   • Irrigation: The state and local communities built canals, wells, and large water reservoirs (tanks) to supplement the monsoon.
   • This allowed for a second "winter crop" (rabi crop), increasing food security.

Environmental Impact

• Deforestation: This was the single biggest impact. Vast areas of the Gangetic forest were cleared for fields.
• Changed Hydrology: The creation of dams, canals, and embankments altered the natural flow of rivers.
• Rise of Cities: The food surplus from this new agriculture supported large, non-farming populations, leading to the growth of cities like Pataliputra, Varanasi, and Ujjain.