Unit 2: Archaeology in India: The Pioneers

1. Archaeology in India: Establishment of the Asiatic Society

The systematic study of India's past (Indology) began during the British colonial period, driven by administrative needs and scholarly curiosity. The first major step was the formation of the Asiatic Society.

The Asiatic Society

• Founded: January 15, 1784.
• Founder: Sir William Jones, a British philologist and judge in Calcutta.
• Location: Calcutta (now Kolkata).
• Original Name: Asiatick Society.

Aims and Significance

The Society was founded to encourage the study of "Man and Nature" within the geographical limits of Asia. Its goal was to investigate the history, arts, sciences, literature, and antiquities of the continent.

• Start of Indology: It marked the beginning of "Indology" – the academic study of Indian history, language, and culture.
• Journal: It published a journal, Asiatick Researches, which became the primary vehicle for disseminating new findings.
• Decipherment of Scripts: The Society's journal published the work of James Prinsep, who famously deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837. This was a monumental breakthrough, as it allowed Ashokan edicts to be read for the first time, unlocking a huge part of India's early history.
• Museum Collection: The society began collecting antiquities, manuscripts, and natural history specimens, which formed the nucleus of the Indian Museum (established 1814).

2. Alexander Cunningham and the establishment of the Archaeological Survey

Alexander Cunningham (1814-1893)

Sir Alexander Cunningham, a British army engineer, is widely regarded as the "Father of Indian Archaeology." He had a deep passion for India's ancient past and was heavily influenced by the travelogues of ancient Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, particularly Faxian (Fa-Hien) and Xuanzang (Hiuen-Tsang).

Cunningham's Method

His primary method was "topographical survey." He would read the detailed descriptions of routes and monasteries left by Xuanzang and then travel the same routes, identifying the modern locations of ancient cities and sites mentioned in the texts. His major identifications include:

• Sarnath (near Varanasi)
• Sanchi (in Madhya Pradesh)
• Taxila (Takshashila, in modern Pakistan)
• Nalanda (in Bihar)

Establishment of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)

Cunningham persistently lobbied the British government, arguing that India's ancient monuments were rapidly decaying and needed to be formally surveyed and documented.

• 1861: The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established by the Viceroy, Lord Canning.
• Alexander Cunningham was appointed as its first Archaeological Surveyor (later Director-General).
• Early Years (1861-1865): Cunningham conducted extensive surveys, but the ASI was unfortunately abolished in 1866 due to a lack of funds.
• Re-establishment (1871): The ASI was revived, and Cunningham was re-appointed as Director-General. He continued his surveys and excavations until his retirement in 1885.

3. Contributions of John Marshall and Mortimer Wheeler in Indian Archaeology

If Cunningham *found* the sites, Marshall and Wheeler were the ones who *excavated* them, though with very different methods. They represent two distinct phases of archaeological practice in India.

Sir John Marshall (DG of ASI, 1902-1928)

John Marshall's tenure marks a golden age of large-scale excavations and monumental discoveries.

Key Contributions:

1. Discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC): This was his most significant achievement. In 1924, Marshall officially announced the discovery of a new, ancient civilization in the Indus Valley, based on the excavations at:
   • Harappa (excavated by Dayaram Sahani)
   • Mohenjo-Daro (excavated by R.D. Banerjee)
   This discovery pushed back the history of India by millennia, proving it was contemporary with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.
2. Major Excavations: He led massive excavation projects at historical sites like Taxila, Sanchi (where he restored the Great Stupa), and Sarnath.
3. Excavation Method: Marshall employed horizontal excavation. He was interested in exposing the wide layout of cities and buildings to understand their architecture and plan.

Criticism:

Marshall's greatest weakness was his lack of attention to stratigraphy (the study of layers of occupation). He often dug by arbitrary levels rather than following the natural soil layers, which mixed artifacts from different time periods and made it difficult to build a precise chronology.

Sir Mortimer Wheeler (DG of ASI, 1944-1948)

Mortimer Wheeler was a British army officer and a scientifically-minded archaeologist. He was brought to India to reform the ASI and introduce modern scientific techniques.

Key Contributions:

1. Introduction of Scientific Stratigraphy: This was his *most important* contribution. Wheeler insisted that excavation must follow the natural layers of the soil. He championed the "Wheeler-Kenyon Method" or "Grid System."

   (Diagram Placeholder: A 3D view of a site dug in square trenches, showing the "baulks" or walls of earth left in between. These baulks preserve a vertical record of the stratigraphy, which can be "read" like a history book.)

2. Training: He established training programs for a new generation of Indian archaeologists (including B.B. Lal, featured in Unit 3) at Taxila and other sites, ensuring his methods would continue.
3. Key Excavations:
   • Arikamedu (near Pondicherry): He excavated this Roman trade post to create a clear chronology for South Indian history, using datable Roman artifacts (like Arretine ware pottery) to date the associated Indian pottery.
   • Harappa: He re-excavated Harappa and, by applying his stratigraphic method, was the first to identify the massive mud-brick fortification wall, providing a military context for the city.