Unit 2: Basic Concepts: I

Democracy

Meaning and Forms

The word 'Democracy' is derived from two Greek words: 'Demos' (meaning people) and 'Kratos' (meaning power or rule). Thus, democracy literally means 'rule by the people'.

Abraham Lincoln's Definition: "Government of the people, by the people, for the people."

There are two primary forms of democracy:

• Direct Democracy: Citizens themselves directly participate in decision-making. This was practiced in ancient Athens and is seen today in some Swiss cantons and through mechanisms like referendums.
• Indirect/Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This is the most common form of democracy in modern nation-states.

Characteristics of Democracy

• Popular Sovereignty: The ultimate source of authority rests with the people.
• Rule of Law: All individuals, including government officials, are subject to the law.
• Political Equality: The principle of 'one person, one vote, one value'.
• Civil Liberties: Guarantees of fundamental rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion.
• Free, Fair, and Regular Elections: A mechanism for people to choose and change their government.
• Accountability and Transparency: The government is answerable to the people for its actions.

Merits and Demerits

Merits (Advantages)	Demerits (Disadvantages)
Protects individual liberty and rights.	Can be inefficient and slow in decision-making.
Promotes equality and human dignity.	May lead to the 'tyranny of the majority', where minority rights are ignored.
Leads to a more stable and legitimate government as it is based on consent.	Can be expensive to operate (e.g., conducting elections).
Provides a peaceful mechanism for changing governments and resolving conflicts.	Voters may be uninformed or apathetic, leading to poor choices.

The Pre-conditions for the Success of Democracy

For democracy to function effectively, certain conditions are necessary:

1. Widespread Education: An educated citizenry is better equipped to make informed decisions.
2. Economic Security: Extreme poverty can make people vulnerable to manipulation and prevent them from participating effectively.
3. Spirit of Tolerance: A willingness to respect different opinions and lifestyles is crucial.
4. Vigilant Public Opinion: An active and alert citizenry that holds the government accountable.
5. Strong Civil Society: A network of independent associations and groups (NGOs, unions, etc.) that can check state power.
6. Independent Judiciary and Free Press: Essential institutions to uphold the rule of law and ensure transparency.

Liberty

Definition and Features

Liberty, or freedom, is a core value in political theory. It generally refers to the absence of constraints and the ability of individuals to act as they choose.

Definition: Liberty is the ability of an individual to pursue their own will and preferences without undue interference from others or the state, provided their actions do not harm others.

Key features include individual autonomy, self-determination, and the absence of coercion.

Forms of Liberty

The most important distinction is between Negative and Positive Liberty.

• Negative Liberty: This is 'freedom from' external interference. It emphasizes a private sphere where the individual can act without obstruction. Thinkers like John Stuart Mill are associated with this view. Example: Freedom of speech means the state cannot stop you from expressing your opinion.
• Positive Liberty: This is 'freedom to' act and realize one's potential. It argues that true freedom requires not just the absence of constraints but also the presence of necessary conditions (like education, healthcare, and opportunities). Thinkers like T.H. Green are associated with this view. Example: Freedom of speech is meaningless if a person lacks the education and confidence to articulate their thoughts.

Safeguards of Liberty

• A written Constitution with a Bill of Rights.
• An independent and impartial judiciary.
• The rule of law.
• Decentralization of power (e.g., federalism).
• Eternal vigilance by the citizens.

Equality

Meaning, Features, and Kinds

Equality does not mean absolute sameness. It is a complex concept that means people should be treated as equals, without arbitrary discrimination.

Definition: Political equality means providing adequate opportunities to all for their development. It stands for the absence of special privileges based on birth, caste, religion, or race.

Kinds of Equality:

• Formal/Legal Equality: Equality before the law. The law applies equally to all citizens.
• Political Equality: Equal right to vote, contest elections, and hold public office.
• Social Equality: Absence of discrimination based on caste, class, gender, or religion in social life.
• Economic Equality: Not the equal distribution of wealth, but reducing the gap between rich and poor and ensuring a basic standard of living for all.
• Equality of Opportunity: Ensuring that everyone has a fair chance to succeed in life, regardless of their background.

Relation between Liberty and Equality

The relationship between liberty and equality is one of the most debated topics in political theory.

Viewpoint	Argument	Key Thinkers
They are Opposed	This view, often associated with classical liberals, argues that enforcing equality (especially economic equality) requires state intervention that inevitably restricts individual liberty. To make people equal, you must take from some and give to others, which curtails freedom.	Lord Acton, Alexis de Tocqueville
They are Complementary	This view, held by modern liberals and socialists, argues that liberty and equality are mutually reinforcing. Without a degree of equality (e.g., economic security, access to education), the liberty of the poor and marginalized is meaningless. True liberty is impossible in a society with vast inequalities.	R.H. Tawney, Harold Laski