Unit 2: Basic Concepts: I

Democracy

Meaning, Forms, Characteristics, Merits and Demerits

The word 'Democracy' is derived from two Greek words: 'Demos' (meaning people) and 'Kratos' (meaning power or rule). Thus, democracy literally means 'rule by the people'.

Abraham Lincoln's Definition: "Government of the people, by the people, for the people."

There are two primary forms of democracy:

  • Direct Democracy: Citizens themselves directly participate in decision-making. This was practiced in ancient Athens and is seen today in some Swiss cantons and through mechanisms like referendums.
  • Indirect/Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf. This is the most common form of democracy in modern nation-states.

Characteristics of Democracy:

  • Popular Sovereignty: The ultimate source of authority rests with the people.
  • Rule of Law: All individuals, including government officials, are subject to the law.
  • Political Equality: The principle of 'one person, one vote, one value'.
  • Civil Liberties: Guarantees of fundamental rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and religion.
  • Free, Fair, and Regular Elections: A mechanism for people to choose and change their government.
  • Accountability and Transparency: The government is answerable to the people for its actions.

Merits and Demerits

Merits (Advantages) Demerits (Disadvantages)
Protects individual liberty and rights. Can be inefficient and slow in decision-making.
Promotes equality and human dignity. May lead to the 'tyranny of the majority', where minority rights are ignored.
Leads to a more stable and legitimate government as it is based on consent. Can be expensive to operate (e.g., conducting elections).
Provides a peaceful mechanism for changing governments and resolving conflicts. Voters may be uninformed or apathetic, leading to poor choices.

The Pre-conditions for the Success of Democracy

For democracy to function effectively, certain conditions are necessary:

  1. Widespread Education: An educated citizenry is better equipped to make informed decisions.
  2. Economic Security: Extreme poverty can make people vulnerable to manipulation and prevent them from participating effectively.
  3. Spirit of Tolerance: A willingness to respect different opinions and lifestyles is crucial.
  4. Vigilant Public Opinion: An active and alert citizenry that holds the government accountable.
  5. Strong Civil Society: A network of independent associations and groups (NGOs, unions, etc.) that can check state power.
  6. Independent Judiciary and Free Press: Essential institutions to uphold the rule of law and ensure transparency.

Liberty

Definition, Features, Forms of Liberty; Safeguards of Liberty

Liberty, or freedom, is a core value in political theory. It generally refers to the absence of constraints and the ability of individuals to act as they choose.

Definition: Liberty is the ability of an individual to pursue their own will and preferences without undue interference from others or the state, provided their actions do not harm others.

Key features include individual autonomy, self-determination, and the absence of coercion.

Forms of Liberty

The most important distinction is between Negative and Positive Liberty.

  • Negative Liberty: This is 'freedom from' external interference. It emphasizes a private sphere where the individual can act without obstruction. Thinkers like John Stuart Mill are associated with this view. Example: Freedom of speech means the state cannot stop you from expressing your opinion.
  • Positive Liberty: This is 'freedom to' act and realize one's potential. It argues that true freedom requires not just the absence of constraints but also the presence of necessary conditions (like education, healthcare, and opportunities). Thinkers like T.H. Green are associated with this view. Example: Freedom of speech is meaningless if a person lacks the education and confidence to articulate their thoughts.
⚠️ Common Pitfall: Don't confuse Negative Liberty with being 'bad' and Positive Liberty with being 'good'. They are two different philosophical conceptions of what freedom means. Negative liberty is about non-interference, while positive liberty is about self-mastery and enablement.

Safeguards of Liberty

  • A written Constitution with a Bill of Rights.
  • An independent and impartial judiciary.
  • The rule of law.
  • Decentralization of power (e.g., federalism).
  • Eternal vigilance by the citizens.

Equality

Meaning, Features, Kinds of Equality; Relation between Liberty and Equality

Equality does not mean absolute sameness. It is a complex concept that means people should be treated as equals, without arbitrary discrimination.

Definition: Political equality means providing adequate opportunities to all for their development. It stands for the absence of special privileges based on birth, caste, religion, or race.

Kinds of Equality:

  • Formal/Legal Equality: Equality before the law. The law applies equally to all citizens.
  • Political Equality: Equal right to vote, contest elections, and hold public office.
  • Social Equality: Absence of discrimination based on caste, class, gender, or religion in social life.
  • Economic Equality: Not the equal distribution of wealth, but reducing the gap between rich and poor and ensuring a basic standard of living for all.
  • Equality of Opportunity: Ensuring that everyone has a fair chance to succeed in life, regardless of their background.

Relation between Liberty and Equality

The relationship between liberty and equality is one of the most debated topics in political theory.

Viewpoint Argument Key Thinkers
They are Opposed This view, often associated with classical liberals, argues that enforcing equality (especially economic equality) requires state intervention that inevitably restricts individual liberty. To make people equal, you must take from some and give to others, which curtails freedom. Lord Acton, Alexis de Tocqueville
They are Complementary This view, held by modern liberals and socialists, argues that liberty and equality are mutually reinforcing. Without a degree of equality (e.g., economic security, access to education), the liberty of the poor and marginalized is meaningless. True liberty is impossible in a society with vast inequalities. R.H. Tawney, Harold Laski
Exam Tip: Be prepared to argue both sides of the Liberty vs. Equality debate. The modern consensus is that they are complementary. R.H. Tawney's quote is very useful here: "A 'liberty' for the pike is 'death' for the minnows." This illustrates how the unrestrained liberty of the powerful can destroy the liberty of the weak, necessitating equality.

Justice

Development of the Idea and Types of Justice

Justice is arguably the most central concept in political theory. It is concerned with the fair and rightful ordering of society.

  • Ancient View (Plato): Justice means giving each person their due and performing one's own role in society without interfering with others. It's about social harmony.
  • Modern View: Justice is linked to fairness, equality, rights, and the equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.

Key types of justice:

  1. Procedural Justice: Focuses on fair processes. It argues that if the rules and procedures are fair, then the outcome is just, regardless of what it is. (e.g., a fair trial).
  2. Distributive Justice: Concerns the fair distribution of society's benefits and burdens (wealth, opportunities, taxes). It asks, "Who should get what?"
  3. Social Justice: A broader concept that aims to correct historical injustices and create a society where all individuals and groups have equal opportunities and are treated with dignity.

Rawls' Theory of Justice

John Rawls' "A Theory of Justice" (1971) is one of the most influential works of modern political philosophy. He proposes a theory of "Justice as Fairness".

To determine the principles of justice, Rawls uses a thought experiment:

  • The Original Position: A hypothetical situation where rational individuals meet to decide the basic structure of their society.
  • The Veil of Ignorance: In this position, individuals are behind a 'veil of ignorance'. They do not know their own social status, class, race, gender, talents, or conception of the good life.

Rawls argues that from behind this veil, people would choose two principles of justice:

  1. The Liberty Principle: Each person is to have an equal right to the most extensive basic liberty compatible with a similar liberty for others. (Freedoms of speech, conscience, etc.)
  2. The Difference Principle: Social and economic inequalities are to be arranged so that they are both:
    • (a) to the greatest benefit of the least-advantaged members of society.
    • (b) attached to offices and positions open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
Exam Tip: For Rawls, the Liberty Principle has priority. You cannot sacrifice basic liberties for economic gain. The key takeaway from the Difference Principle is that inequality is only justified if it benefits the poorest section of society.